DEFINING POWER
In a general sense, power refers to any kind of influence exercised by an individual or a group of people. Max Weber defined power as the chance or probability of an individual/group imposing their will on others.
Weber argues that there are different types of authority, and factors that can affect a persons legitimacy.
Weber also distinguishes two different types of power.
Some sociologists argue that there is a form of power halfway between coercion and authority - where people are persuaded to change their minds, but through manipulation.
Weber argues that there are different types of authority, and factors that can affect a persons legitimacy.
- Charisma - Some individuals are able to direct the behaviours of other due their high charismatic and social skills, and have exceptionally powerful personalities that can inspire and motivate other people. Examples of people like this could be Adolf Hitler, Ghandi, and Reverend Jim Jones.
- Tradition - Power can be derived from a historical context - for example the queen. People largely believe that she is entitled to her power due to the history of the british monarchy.
- Rational-Legal - Other types of power can come from legal authority such as police officers, judges etc. Such authority and power is supposed to be applied to everyone without bias, and people understand that these people legally have power over them and most often happily oblige.
Weber also distinguishes two different types of power.
- Coercion - Usually by force or violence, to force someone into accepting their power.
- Authority - People believe the power in these individuals is legitimate and respect that. We accept their power, such as police officers, teachers etc because we accept they are a legitimate source of power and have authority over us.
Some sociologists argue that there is a form of power halfway between coercion and authority - where people are persuaded to change their minds, but through manipulation.
FUNCTIONALISM AND POWER
Functionalists view power as a positive resource - characterized by consensus and legitimacy. Parsons (1963) argues that power results from the sharing of resources in order to achieve collective social and cultural goals. E.g If A and B both work together, they will both increase their power as well as benefit society.
Parson argues that if power is to be used to achieve collective goals, it needs direction and organization. For this reason, people of society authorise some individuals via democratic election - to exercise power on their behalf. Parson argues that if people are not happy with the use of that power then they will simply just not vote. In this way power can be monopolised and used to benefit everyone in society equally.
There are many criticisms of this perspective - many argue that it is 'rose tinted' and that this theory largely ignores the negative impacts of power and control in society today, and in the past. Power is not always used by everyone to benefit the whole of society - individuals can sometimes be very self driven and use their power to benefit themselves and not everyone else.
Parson argues that if power is to be used to achieve collective goals, it needs direction and organization. For this reason, people of society authorise some individuals via democratic election - to exercise power on their behalf. Parson argues that if people are not happy with the use of that power then they will simply just not vote. In this way power can be monopolised and used to benefit everyone in society equally.
There are many criticisms of this perspective - many argue that it is 'rose tinted' and that this theory largely ignores the negative impacts of power and control in society today, and in the past. Power is not always used by everyone to benefit the whole of society - individuals can sometimes be very self driven and use their power to benefit themselves and not everyone else.
MARXISM AND POWER
Marxists argue that power arises out of the social relations of production and capitalism. There are two groups of members in society - the bourgeois (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class). The ruling class have the power over the working class, and there is a large inequality between the two classes.
Class domination and economic power is maintained through coercion and ideological hegemony. (The controlling of ideas). Bocock (1986) argues that hegemony occurs by the ruling class providing the dominant cultural outlook for the whole of society. Althusser (1971) also argues that the bourgeois achieve this cultural dominance by using its economic power to define what counts as knowledge, ideas, art, education and news. Social institutions such as education, the legal system and the political system all act as a way of transmitting ruling class ideology, so that it is mass-accepted by society.
Westgaard (1996) says this occurs because the working class fail to identify their own structural position correctly - they fail to realise they are being exploited as workers. Gramsci (1971) argues that hegemony and the resulting consent of the people has enabled the ruling class to deal with any threats to its authority without having to use force. However he argues that hegemony does not mean that subordinate classes will always lack power or that power of the dominant is absolute. He argues that potential power is available to the working class and if they become sufficiently self conscious and politically organised to seize or challenge the ruling class.
Criticisms of Marxisms
Mann (1986) does not agree that all power is rooted in class relationships. He argues that there are two broader types of power.
Mann notes that power has a number of unique characteristics
Mann agrees with Marxists that class is an important source of power but he also acknowledges other sources of power.
Class domination and economic power is maintained through coercion and ideological hegemony. (The controlling of ideas). Bocock (1986) argues that hegemony occurs by the ruling class providing the dominant cultural outlook for the whole of society. Althusser (1971) also argues that the bourgeois achieve this cultural dominance by using its economic power to define what counts as knowledge, ideas, art, education and news. Social institutions such as education, the legal system and the political system all act as a way of transmitting ruling class ideology, so that it is mass-accepted by society.
Westgaard (1996) says this occurs because the working class fail to identify their own structural position correctly - they fail to realise they are being exploited as workers. Gramsci (1971) argues that hegemony and the resulting consent of the people has enabled the ruling class to deal with any threats to its authority without having to use force. However he argues that hegemony does not mean that subordinate classes will always lack power or that power of the dominant is absolute. He argues that potential power is available to the working class and if they become sufficiently self conscious and politically organised to seize or challenge the ruling class.
Criticisms of Marxisms
Mann (1986) does not agree that all power is rooted in class relationships. He argues that there are two broader types of power.
- Distributional Power - held and exercised by individuals who have the ability to get others to pursue their goals.
- Collective Power - exercised by social groups over other social groups ranging in size from nation states to families.
Mann notes that power has a number of unique characteristics
- It can be extensive - it can involve the ability to co-opt large numbers of people across huge distances to work together in common interest. For example, some muslim people, regardless of their nationality or ethnic group, express loyalty first and foremost to their religion.
- It can be intensive - it can command extreme loyalty and dedication from followers.
- It can be authoritive - It can be organised around rules and commands which are largely regarded as legitimate.
- It can be diffused - It can result from natural or spontaneous processes rather than an individual or group issuing commands or physically imposing themselves on a subordinate group.
Mann agrees with Marxists that class is an important source of power but he also acknowledges other sources of power.
- World Religions
- Military Power
- The state
POST STRUCTURALISM AND POWER
Focault (1980) rejects the link between social structure and power. He argues that power is an inescapable part of everyday life. He argues that power plays an important role in the construction of identity. According to Focault there is a significant relationship between power, knowledge and language. He argued that there exists bodies of knowledge and language which he discourses. These dominate how society sees describes and thinks about how we should live our lives in terms of family, sexuality, discipline and punishment etc.
Disciplinary Power
Focaults conception of this type of power developed from his study of prisons and asylums. Forcault noted that people were no longer simply punished for crimes, rather that there was an attempt to judge why people had commited particular crimes. A range of expert proffesionals emerged with the power to observe, judge, and categorise peoples behaviours in terms of normality and deviance. These includes psychologists and psychiatrists and social workers. Forcault is therefore suggesting that our identity as well as our behaviour patterns are the result of these powerful judgements or discourses about what counts as normal behaviour.
Bio-Power
Forcault identified a second conception of power which he termed bio-power, which is concerned with controlling the body and how it is perceived by the general population. Forcault see's this as especially influential in structing discourses on sexuality and in shaping attitudes and behaviour among the mass of the population towards different types of sexuality.
Forcault has been criticised for not being empirical in a conventional research sense. He tended to support his arguments with selective historical examples rather than systematically gathered contempory data. Moreover, his work tended to be overly descriptive at the expense of explanation.
Disciplinary Power
Focaults conception of this type of power developed from his study of prisons and asylums. Forcault noted that people were no longer simply punished for crimes, rather that there was an attempt to judge why people had commited particular crimes. A range of expert proffesionals emerged with the power to observe, judge, and categorise peoples behaviours in terms of normality and deviance. These includes psychologists and psychiatrists and social workers. Forcault is therefore suggesting that our identity as well as our behaviour patterns are the result of these powerful judgements or discourses about what counts as normal behaviour.
Bio-Power
Forcault identified a second conception of power which he termed bio-power, which is concerned with controlling the body and how it is perceived by the general population. Forcault see's this as especially influential in structing discourses on sexuality and in shaping attitudes and behaviour among the mass of the population towards different types of sexuality.
Forcault has been criticised for not being empirical in a conventional research sense. He tended to support his arguments with selective historical examples rather than systematically gathered contempory data. Moreover, his work tended to be overly descriptive at the expense of explanation.
FEMINISM AND GENDER
Feminists argue that the most important type of power originates in the relationship between men and women. They focus on the concept of patriarchal power which they define as the power men have over women. Millett (1970) argued that patriarchal power resulted in male dominance and female subordination. She suggests that patriarchy is the most powerful ideology of our culture arguing that it is more important than social class because it has been around a lot longer. Millett argues that patriarchy is the result of a number of factors:
Millett's conception of male power has been criticised. Rowbotham (1982) is sceptical of Millett's claim and that all men exploit women etc. She points out that this claim is exaggerated because it implies that both men and women cannot have loving or friendly relationships.
- Biology - Males have been able to use their superior physical strength to dominate women. Socialisation in children further encourages this.
- Ideology - Institutions are dominated by males and consequently these transmit the view that men are better suited than women to high status jobs and roles.
- The family - He argues that this institution is the source of patriarchy where it transmits from generation to generation.
- Caste - Millett argues that gender is a type of caste that operates independently of class.
- Education - Women are not encouraged to study high status subjects
- Economic Dependancy - Women are segregated in the job market - denied entry into higher paid jobs etc.
- Psychology - Women develop an inferiority complex as a result of the above influences.
Millett's conception of male power has been criticised. Rowbotham (1982) is sceptical of Millett's claim and that all men exploit women etc. She points out that this claim is exaggerated because it implies that both men and women cannot have loving or friendly relationships.
